PROJECT DETAILS ONLY - NO DATA. Tuberculosis (TB) is a reemerging infection that was also common in the past in Britain. Poverty, drug resistance, the HIV, and migration are key factors in its occurrence today. The disease can be caused by any one of five related bacteria known as the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. In Britain the two most likely candidates are Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis. M. bovis can infect many different animals, including cows, and humans were often infected by drinking milk, which is why it is pasteurised in Britain. Today, most TB infections occur in the lungs, because it is transmitted via coughing, but other parts of the body can also be infected, especially if the disease is caught by eating or drinking infected foods. If left untreated the infection can cause damage to different bones in the body, most commonly the spine, ribs, hips and knees. Archaeologists have used this information to study TB in the past, but visual examination of skeletons does not reveal which bacterium has caused the infection, nor which strain of either species is present. We would like to be able identify species and strains because this would enable us to trace the origin of TB in Britain. We think TB came to Britain from the Mediterranean region but to confirm this idea we would have to compare the particular strain present in early British skeletons with that in bones from southern Europe. Similarly, we believe that there were changes in the frequencies of different strains of Mycobacterium over time, and these changes were possibly influenced by factors such as immigration, changes in population density, and changes in the environment. There are also interesting questions about the evolution of TB in the New World after contact with Europeans. All of these questions could be addressed if we could identify the particular strains of Mycobacterium in skeletons from different places and different time periods. Until recently, this was impossible, but now there are techniques for studying the small amounts of 'ancient' DNA that are preserved in some archaeological skeletons. We will therefore extract ancient DNA from a variety of skeletons that show the bone changes associated with TB, and use DNA sequencing to determine which Mycobacterium strain is present in each case. The proposed project will carry out this work with skeletons from Britain and Europe. Our Project Partners in Arizona State University are doing similar work with bones from North America, and by comparing our two sets of results we will be able to study the impact that Contact had on TB in the New World.

Bed level data are presented from transects at the Tollesbury Managed Realignment site, after the managed breaching of the sea wall in August 1995. Twenty measurements were taken at fixed positions along transects relative to an aluminium bar placed across a pair of permanent wooden posts at either end of each transect. Measurements were made to the nearest millimetre using a ruler. All measurements were made by the data author. Data from the original transects were collected monthly from September 1995 to 1998, bimonthly up to 2000 and then in April and September to 2007. Extra transects were added in April 1999 and data collected at the same frequency. The data were collected investigate if the exposure of the agricultural land to seawater would result in the accumulation of silt. The work was funded by the Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (Defra) under the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (CEH) contract C00356 Full details about this dataset can be found at https://doi.org/10.5285/f9513ece-a913-4774-8808-273dcf7ed0be

The Environmental Zones are aggregations of ITE Land Classes; these classes are derived from repeatable multivariate analysis of environmental data collected for each 1 km square in the country. Thus the classes, and hence the zones, are determined by combinations of environmental characteristics, not by just one or two. This means that the naming of classes (and zones) is not straightforward and cannot be achieved by reference to single parameters such as altitude. The approach taken with the ITE Land Classes is to give each a numeric identifier, rather than a text name, and to supplement these Land Class numbers with a brief description of the class. Full details about this dataset can be found at https://doi.org/10.5285/0cfd454a-d035-416c-80dc-803c65470ea2

This dataset consists of macrophyte species records, sampled from headwater streams during a survey in 2007. Stream macrophytes in Countryside Survey are surveyed using the standard MTR (Mean Trophic Rank) protocol, which records the presence and extent (on a categorical scale) of macrophytes in a 100m reach. Data were collected under the Countryside Survey long term monitoring project managed by the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. The Countryside Survey is a unique study or 'audit' of the natural resources of the UK's countryside. The sample sites are chosen from a stratified random sample, based on a 15 by 15 km grid of GB. Headwater stream surveys have been carried out in 1990, 1998 and 2007 with repeated visits to the majority of sites. The countryside is sampled and surveyed using rigorous scientific methods, allowing us to compare new results with those from previous surveys. In this way we can detect the gradual and subtle changes that occur in the UK's countryside over time. In addition to headwater stream data, soil data, habitat areas, vegetation species data and linear habitat data are also gathered by Countryside Survey. Full details about this dataset can be found at https://doi.org/10.5285/249a90ec-238b-4038-a706-6633c3690d20

PROJECT DETAILS ONLY - NO DATA. The African continent is slowly splitting apart along the East African rift valley, a 3000 km-long series of deep basins and flanking mountain ranges. This process may eventually lead to the formation of a new ocean, but on a time scale of millions of years. In the remote Afar depression in northern Ethiopia, Earth's outermost shell, usually a relatively rigid, 150 km-thick plate, has been stretched, thinned and heated to the point of rupture, to the extent that a new ocean is about to form. Below the surface, upwelling rocks from Earth's mantle below are partially melting, rising, and cooling. Here, we have the unprecedented opportunity to witness the process of plate rupture and upwelling of molten rock (magma). Normally, this process occurs within shallow seas, or along the established seafloor spreading centres deep under the oceans; in Afar, though, we can actually walk across the region as it happens. Satellite observations of the earth show that tectonic plates move apart, on average, very slowly: usually at a few centimetres per year, or about the rate of fingernail growth. Very occasionally, however, sudden large movements occur, often with devastating consequences. In September 2005, a series of fissures opened along a 60 km section of the Afar depression, as the plate responded catastrophically to forces pulling it apart. Over about a week, the rift pulled apart by 8 metres, and dropped down by up to 1 metre. As told by local people, a series of earthquakes signalled the rise of molten rock to the surface on September 26, and ash darkened the air locally for 3 days. At the same time, satellites tracking the region showed that the surface above nearby volcanoes subsided by as much as 3 metres, as magma was injected along the fissure below the surface. The rapidity and immense length of rupture are not unexpected, but have never before been measured directly. The Afar depression is so hot and dry that almost no vegetation obscures the rocks exposed on its top surface; this also means that we can use satellites to image them and to measure the way that the Earth's surface changes as faults move, and as pressurised molten rock moves up and along the length of fissures within the rift valley. In the nine months since the first major earthquakes, more dramatic surface changes have continued to take place, and earthquakes continue to stir the earth. We are proposing a major set of experiments that will bring together experts on Earth deformation, and on magma sources, movement and eruption to this unique natural laboratory. Over the next five years, a team of UK, Ethiopian and US scientists will collaborate to find answers to fundamental questions of plate tectonics: . How do the different layers of the plate stretch apart? . Where does molten rock form and rise to form new oceanic crust? . How does the molten rock move up to the surface? Satellites will image the earth from above, and sensors will record sound waves from distant and near earthquakes and natural magnetic signals to image the thickness of the rock layers the plate comprises, and discover where the magma is located prior to eruption. We will also collect and analyse the composition of rocks from young volcanoes in the same region. The Earth history deduced from compositional variations in space and time will give us clues as to when and how often similar sorts of events happened in the past / and may happen again in the future.

PROJECT DETAILS ONLY - NO DATA. The African continent is slowly splitting apart along the East African rift valley, a 3000 km-long series of deep basins and flanking mountain ranges. This process may eventually lead to the formation of a new ocean, but on a time scale of millions of years. In the remote Afar depression in northern Ethiopia, Earth's outermost shell, usually a relatively rigid, 150 km-thick plate, has been stretched, thinned and heated to the point of rupture, to the extent that a new ocean is about to form. Below the surface, upwelling rocks from Earth's mantle below are partially melting, rising, and cooling. Here, we have the unprecedented opportunity to witness the process of plate rupture and upwelling of molten rock (magma). Normally, this process occurs within shallow seas, or along the established seafloor spreading centres deep under the oceans; in Afar, though, we can actually walk across the region as it happens. Satellite observations of the earth show that tectonic plates move apart, on average, very slowly: usually at a few centimetres per year, or about the rate of fingernail growth. Very occasionally, however, sudden large movements occur, often with devastating consequences. In September 2005, a series of fissures opened along a 60 km section of the Afar depression, as the plate responded catastrophically to forces pulling it apart. Over about a week, the rift pulled apart by 8 metres, and dropped down by up to 1 metre. As told by local people, a series of earthquakes signalled the rise of molten rock to the surface on September 26, and ash darkened the air locally for 3 days. At the same time, satellites tracking the region showed that the surface above nearby volcanoes subsided by as much as 3 metres, as magma was injected along the fissure below the surface. The rapidity and immense length of rupture are not unexpected, but have never before been measured directly. The Afar depression is so hot and dry that almost no vegetation obscures the rocks exposed on its top surface; this also means that we can use satellites to image them and to measure the way that the Earth's surface changes as faults move, and as pressurised molten rock moves up and along the length of fissures within the rift valley. In the nine months since the first major earthquakes, more dramatic surface changes have continued to take place, and earthquakes continue to stir the earth. We are proposing a major set of experiments that will bring together experts on Earth deformation, and on magma sources, movement and eruption to this unique natural laboratory. Over the next five years, a team of UK, Ethiopian and US scientists will collaborate to find answers to fundamental questions of plate tectonics: . How do the different layers of the plate stretch apart? . Where does molten rock form and rise to form new oceanic crust? . How does the molten rock move up to the surface? Satellites will image the earth from above, and sensors will record sound waves from distant and near earthquakes and natural magnetic signals to image the thickness of the rock layers the plate comprises, and discover where the magma is located prior to eruption. We will also collect and analyse the composition of rocks from young volcanoes in the same region. The Earth history deduced from compositional variations in space and time will give us clues as to when and how often similar sorts of events happened in the past / and may happen again in the future.

PROJECT DETAILS ONLY - NO DATA. The African continent is slowly splitting apart along the East African rift valley, a 3000 km-long series of deep basins and flanking mountain ranges. This process may eventually lead to the formation of a new ocean, but on a time scale of millions of years. In the remote Afar depression in northern Ethiopia, Earth's outermost shell, usually a relatively rigid, 150 km-thick plate, has been stretched, thinned and heated to the point of rupture, to the extent that a new ocean is about to form. Below the surface, upwelling rocks from Earth's mantle below are partially melting, rising, and cooling. Here, we have the unprecedented opportunity to witness the process of plate rupture and upwelling of molten rock (magma). Normally, this process occurs within shallow seas, or along the established seafloor spreading centres deep under the oceans; in Afar, though, we can actually walk across the region as it happens. Satellite observations of the earth show that tectonic plates move apart, on average, very slowly: usually at a few centimetres per year, or about the rate of fingernail growth. Very occasionally, however, sudden large movements occur, often with devastating consequences. In September 2005, a series of fissures opened along a 60 km section of the Afar depression, as the plate responded catastrophically to forces pulling it apart. Over about a week, the rift pulled apart by 8 metres, and dropped down by up to 1 metre. As told by local people, a series of earthquakes signalled the rise of molten rock to the surface on September 26, and ash darkened the air locally for 3 days. At the same time, satellites tracking the region showed that the surface above nearby volcanoes subsided by as much as 3 metres, as magma was injected along the fissure below the surface. The rapidity and immense length of rupture are not unexpected, but have never before been measured directly. The Afar depression is so hot and dry that almost no vegetation obscures the rocks exposed on its top surface; this also means that we can use satellites to image them and to measure the way that the Earth's surface changes as faults move, and as pressurised molten rock moves up and along the length of fissures within the rift valley. In the nine months since the first major earthquakes, more dramatic surface changes have continued to take place, and earthquakes continue to stir the earth. We are proposing a major set of experiments that will bring together experts on Earth deformation, and on magma sources, movement and eruption to this unique natural laboratory. Over the next five years, a team of UK, Ethiopian and US scientists will collaborate to find answers to fundamental questions of plate tectonics: . How do the different layers of the plate stretch apart? . Where does molten rock form and rise to form new oceanic crust? . How does the molten rock move up to the surface? Satellites will image the earth from above, and sensors will record sound waves from distant and near earthquakes and natural magnetic signals to image the thickness of the rock layers the plate comprises, and discover where the magma is located prior to eruption. We will also collect and analyse the composition of rocks from young volcanoes in the same region. The Earth history deduced from compositional variations in space and time will give us clues as to when and how often similar sorts of events happened in the past / and may happen again in the future.

PROJECT DETAILS ONLY - NO DATA. The African continent is slowly splitting apart along the East African rift valley, a 3000 km-long series of deep basins and flanking mountain ranges. This process may eventually lead to the formation of a new ocean, but on a time scale of millions of years. In the remote Afar depression in northern Ethiopia, Earth's outermost shell, usually a relatively rigid, 150 km-thick plate, has been stretched, thinned and heated to the point of rupture, to the extent that a new ocean is about to form. Below the surface, upwelling rocks from Earth's mantle below are partially melting, rising, and cooling. Here, we have the unprecedented opportunity to witness the process of plate rupture and upwelling of molten rock (magma). Normally, this process occurs within shallow seas, or along the established seafloor spreading centres deep under the oceans; in Afar, though, we can actually walk across the region as it happens. Satellite observations of the earth show that tectonic plates move apart, on average, very slowly: usually at a few centimetres per year, or about the rate of fingernail growth. Very occasionally, however, sudden large movements occur, often with devastating consequences. In September 2005, a series of fissures opened along a 60 km section of the Afar depression, as the plate responded catastrophically to forces pulling it apart. Over about a week, the rift pulled apart by 8 metres, and dropped down by up to 1 metre. As told by local people, a series of earthquakes signalled the rise of molten rock to the surface on September 26, and ash darkened the air locally for 3 days. At the same time, satellites tracking the region showed that the surface above nearby volcanoes subsided by as much as 3 metres, as magma was injected along the fissure below the surface. The rapidity and immense length of rupture are not unexpected, but have never before been measured directly. The Afar depression is so hot and dry that almost no vegetation obscures the rocks exposed on its top surface; this also means that we can use satellites to image them and to measure the way that the Earth's surface changes as faults move, and as pressurised molten rock moves up and along the length of fissures within the rift valley. In the nine months since the first major earthquakes, more dramatic surface changes have continued to take place, and earthquakes continue to stir the earth. We are proposing a major set of experiments that will bring together experts on Earth deformation, and on magma sources, movement and eruption to this unique natural laboratory. Over the next five years, a team of UK, Ethiopian and US scientists will collaborate to find answers to fundamental questions of plate tectonics: . How do the different layers of the plate stretch apart? . Where does molten rock form and rise to form new oceanic crust? . How does the molten rock move up to the surface? Satellites will image the earth from above, and sensors will record sound waves from distant and near earthquakes and natural magnetic signals to image the thickness of the rock layers the plate comprises, and discover where the magma is located prior to eruption. We will also collect and analyse the composition of rocks from young volcanoes in the same region. The Earth history deduced from compositional variations in space and time will give us clues as to when and how often similar sorts of events happened in the past / and may happen again in the future.

PROJECT DETAILS ONLY - NO DATA. The African continent is slowly splitting apart along the East African rift valley, a 3000 km-long series of deep basins and flanking mountain ranges. This process may eventually lead to the formation of a new ocean, but on a time scale of millions of years. In the remote Afar depression in northern Ethiopia, Earth's outermost shell, usually a relatively rigid, 150 km-thick plate, has been stretched, thinned and heated to the point of rupture, to the extent that a new ocean is about to form. Below the surface, upwelling rocks from Earth's mantle below are partially melting, rising, and cooling. Here, we have the unprecedented opportunity to witness the process of plate rupture and upwelling of molten rock (magma). Normally, this process occurs within shallow seas, or along the established seafloor spreading centres deep under the oceans; in Afar, though, we can actually walk across the region as it happens. Satellite observations of the earth show that tectonic plates move apart, on average, very slowly: usually at a few centimetres per year, or about the rate of fingernail growth. Very occasionally, however, sudden large movements occur, often with devastating consequences. In September 2005, a series of fissures opened along a 60 km section of the Afar depression, as the plate responded catastrophically to forces pulling it apart. Over about a week, the rift pulled apart by 8 metres, and dropped down by up to 1 metre. As told by local people, a series of earthquakes signalled the rise of molten rock to the surface on September 26, and ash darkened the air locally for 3 days. At the same time, satellites tracking the region showed that the surface above nearby volcanoes subsided by as much as 3 metres, as magma was injected along the fissure below the surface. The rapidity and immense length of rupture are not unexpected, but have never before been measured directly. The Afar depression is so hot and dry that almost no vegetation obscures the rocks exposed on its top surface; this also means that we can use satellites to image them and to measure the way that the Earth's surface changes as faults move, and as pressurised molten rock moves up and along the length of fissures within the rift valley. In the nine months since the first major earthquakes, more dramatic surface changes have continued to take place, and earthquakes continue to stir the earth. We are proposing a major set of experiments that will bring together experts on Earth deformation, and on magma sources, movement and eruption to this unique natural laboratory. Over the next five years, a team of UK, Ethiopian and US scientists will collaborate to find answers to fundamental questions of plate tectonics: . How do the different layers of the plate stretch apart? . Where does molten rock form and rise to form new oceanic crust? . How does the molten rock move up to the surface? Satellites will image the earth from above, and sensors will record sound waves from distant and near earthquakes and natural magnetic signals to image the thickness of the rock layers the plate comprises, and discover where the magma is located prior to eruption. We will also collect and analyse the composition of rocks from young volcanoes in the same region. The Earth history deduced from compositional variations in space and time will give us clues as to when and how often similar sorts of events happened in the past / and may happen again in the future.

PROJECT DETAILS ONLY - NO DATA. The African continent is slowly splitting apart along the East African rift valley, a 3000 km-long series of deep basins and flanking mountain ranges. This process may eventually lead to the formation of a new ocean, but on a time scale of millions of years. In the remote Afar depression in northern Ethiopia, Earth's outermost shell, usually a relatively rigid, 150 km-thick plate, has been stretched, thinned and heated to the point of rupture, to the extent that a new ocean is about to form. Below the surface, upwelling rocks from Earth's mantle below are partially melting, rising, and cooling. Here, we have the unprecedented opportunity to witness the process of plate rupture and upwelling of molten rock (magma). Normally, this process occurs within shallow seas, or along the established seafloor spreading centres deep under the oceans; in Afar, though, we can actually walk across the region as it happens. Satellite observations of the earth show that tectonic plates move apart, on average, very slowly: usually at a few centimetres per year, or about the rate of fingernail growth. Very occasionally, however, sudden large movements occur, often with devastating consequences. In September 2005, a series of fissures opened along a 60 km section of the Afar depression, as the plate responded catastrophically to forces pulling it apart. Over about a week, the rift pulled apart by 8 metres, and dropped down by up to 1 metre. As told by local people, a series of earthquakes signalled the rise of molten rock to the surface on September 26, and ash darkened the air locally for 3 days. At the same time, satellites tracking the region showed that the surface above nearby volcanoes subsided by as much as 3 metres, as magma was injected along the fissure below the surface. The rapidity and immense length of rupture are not unexpected, but have never before been measured directly. The Afar depression is so hot and dry that almost no vegetation obscures the rocks exposed on its top surface; this also means that we can use satellites to image them and to measure the way that the Earth's surface changes as faults move, and as pressurised molten rock moves up and along the length of fissures within the rift valley. In the nine months since the first major earthquakes, more dramatic surface changes have continued to take place, and earthquakes continue to stir the earth. We are proposing a major set of experiments that will bring together experts on Earth deformation, and on magma sources, movement and eruption to this unique natural laboratory. Over the next five years, a team of UK, Ethiopian and US scientists will collaborate to find answers to fundamental questions of plate tectonics: . How do the different layers of the plate stretch apart? . Where does molten rock form and rise to form new oceanic crust? . How does the molten rock move up to the surface? Satellites will image the earth from above, and sensors will record sound waves from distant and near earthquakes and natural magnetic signals to image the thickness of the rock layers the plate comprises, and discover where the magma is located prior to eruption. We will also collect and analyse the composition of rocks from young volcanoes in the same region. The Earth history deduced from compositional variations in space and time will give us clues as to when and how often similar sorts of events happened in the past / and may happen again in the future.